The Mossian Language

Last update: 30 November 2007

Contents

Introduction

Mossian was written with either the Alexa or Liotic scripts. Generally speaking, older and western dialects preferred Alexa, while younger and more eastern dialects used Liotic.

Phonology

Consonants

/k_w g_w/ continued both Sunovian /k_w g_w/ and clusters of /k g/ + /w/; they have been given phonemic status partly because they had separate letters in Mossian orthography and partly because clusters of consonant + /w/ were not otherwise found initially.

/n/ before /k/ and /g/ had an allophone [N].

The consonants are transcribed as in some varieties of mediaeval Latin; /k k_w g_w/ are thus transcribed C QU GU, and /j w/ are J V between vowels and I U after consonants.

Vowels

There were two true diphthongs /ai au/, which are transcribed AE AO. Mossian grammarians also counted the combinations /ea eo eai eau/ among the diphthongs, although strictly speaking they were combinations of two or three vowels in hiatus.

In many dialects, word-final /ai au eai eau/ became /a: u: ea eo/.

Phonotactics

1. Geminates: all consonants except /kw gw w j h/ could be geminated, although /ff/ was very rare.
2. Voiceless stop + /s/, i.e. /ps ts ks/. These were common enough to have separate letters in Mossian orthography; in an attempt to reflect this, /ts ks/ are transcribed Z X. It would be nice to have a separate letter for /ps/, too.
3. Nasal + stop (+ /s/): /mp mb nt nd nk ng nk_w ng_w/ and /mps nts nks/. /n/ was pronounced [N] before /k g k_w g_w/.
4. Obstruent + liquid: /p b t d k g f/ + /r/ and /p b k g f/ + /l/.
5. /s/ + stop ( + liquid): /sp st sk sk_w/ and /spl spr str skl skr/. /sk_w/ was rare.
6. Liquid + stop: /l r/ + /p b t k g k_w g_w/. Older /l r/ + /d n s f l r/ had become /ll rr/.
7. Nasal + stop + liquid, i.e. /mpl ndr/ and so on.

Clusters of types 2 4 5 were also found initially. The only consonants permitted at the ends of words were /t s m n/ and the clusters /(m)ps (n)ts (N)ks/.

The type 2 clusters /ps ts ks/ resulted from mergers of of older aspirated stops (/p_h b_h/ and so on) with genuine clusters of stop + /s/. In some dialects the mergers did not take place; in others the clusters were realised as aspirates /p_h t_h k_h/.

/k_w/ merged with /k/ before another consonant.

A peculiarity of many dialects of Mossian, one which is reflected here, was that epenthetic vowels developed between /l r/ and a non-initial consonant. /u/ appeared before /l/, and /e/ before /r/; for example beclin "types of sand" > beculin, and acrin "runs" > acerin.

Stress

1. The primary stress in words of two syllables was on the first syllable: sElan mAlles nEales.
2. In words of more than two syllables, if the penultimate was light (i.e. consisted of a short vowel followed by one or no consonants), the antipenultimate received the primary stress: bEzine.
3. Otherwise the penultimate was stressed: nealÉrin.

Grammar

A very important fact about Mossian was that the grammar was ergative, which in technical terms means that the grouping of verbal arguments was different from that of most European languages. For example, in the two sentences "the dog sleeps" and "the boy kisses the girl", the verbal arguments "boy", "dog", and "girl" are respectively considered to be the verbal agent, experiencer, and patient, and are grouped in the two systems as follows:

Thus, in Latin, the two sentences were canis dormit and puer puellam osculat, in which puer "boy" and canis "dog" were in the same case; whereas in Mossian they were cala malin and cáras cáre misquin, where cala "dog" was in the same case as cáre "girl". In terms of the systems described in this more detailed explanation of the topic, English and Latin are of type D, Mossian is of type E, and Liotan is of type F.

A consequence of ergativity is that, rather than thinking of Mossian verbs as indicating that X performs an action on Y, it is usually more appropriate to consider them as indicating that Y has something performed to him/her/it by X. This is why the English glosses for transitive verbs are mostly given in the passive voice, thus "to be given" rather than "to give".

Nouns

Gender

Nouns were traditionally grouped into six declensions according to the ending of the ergative singular. The declensions generally correlated with gender, which led some grammars to claim erroneously that there was one declension for each gender in the animacy hierarchy and one for odds-and-ends. In actuality, each of the first four declensions continued two separate declensions which had similar endings.

There were no articles in Mossian: cáras could be translated as both "a boy" and "the boy".

Case

First declension

Second declension

Third declension

Fourth declension

/k g/ + /w/ in many cases became /k_w g_w/, which is indicated by the orthographic change C > Q; for example becus "grain of sand", plural bequen.

Fifth declension

Sixth declension

Other consonantal alternations between the ergative and absolutive may be seen in hanox hanige "a kind of jug", miquez miquite "pole, stick", baorups baoripe "layer", fendes fendere "health", and saecenz saecine "leash, lead".

Mass nouns

The stock example was libus "grain of rice", from which was derived the ordinary plural libuen "grains of rice" and the sixth declension singular lips libere "rice"; the plural of the substance noun, liberin, meant "types of rice". In general, one would eat and trade in libuen, but argue over the culinary and aesthetic merits of particular types of liberin. Some more examples, all in the ergative case, were:

Note on genders

• cáras "boy", cáres "girl";
• caedus "wolf", caedues "she-wolf", caeduis "wolf cub";
• calas cales "bitch", calis "pup".

Adjectives

Adjectives fell into two groups depending on whether the endings in the masculine were those of the first nominal declension (vocalic stems) or the sixth (consonantal stems). The endings for the feminine, neuter, tangible, and abstract genders were those of the second through fifth nominal declensions respectively. The full declension of the vocalic stem adjective mondas "quiet" was thus as shown below.

An example of a consonantal stem is nez "low", feminine netes.

Attributive adjectives could either precede or follow the nouns to which they applied. The position following the noun was used with contrastive meaning or to mention something new about the noun; thus cáras mondas "quiet boy" would imply that there was another boy relevant to the discussion who was not quiet, by comparison with mondas cáras which had no such connotations.

Mossian adjectives took suffixes for the same three degrees of comparison as Liotan. The comparitive of superiority and the equative were straightforwardly formed with -um- and -err-, and the comparand was in the partitive: mond-um-as cárás "quieter than the boy", mond-err-as cárás "as quiet as the boy". The comparitive of inferiority was formed with -sid, in which the /s/ combined with the preceding consonant: monz-id-as "not as quiet as, less quiet than".

The superlatives added -iec (a consonant-stem) to the comparitives of inferiority and superiority: mond-um-iex "quietest", monz-ed-iex "least quiet".

Pronouns

The third person pronouns were formed from the same /t-/ as their Rachovian equivalents, and declined as follows:

Many other pronouns were declined in the same way:

• The interrogative pronouns began with /g-/, but were used in the singular only; thus gas gé gó gae gam "who, what".
• Initial /kw-/ appeared in quas qué quó quae quam "everyone, everything". These words were also used as adjectives meaning "each, every" in the singular and "all" in the plural, and took the partitive of the dependent noun; thus quas cárás "each boy, every boy", quan cárárin "all the boys".
• The negative similarly used /l-/: las lé ló lae lam "nobody, nothing"; lan cárárin "none of the boys, no boys".
• The indefinite was formed from the stem caod, thus caodas "someone", caodam "something", caodae cárárin "some (of the) boys".
• The three demonstrative pronouns were formed from the stems hent- "this one", hact- "that one", hurt- "yonder one"; for example hentas "this one" (masc erg sing).
• The demonstrative adjectives were the same as the demonstrative pronouns with /k/ in place of the /t/, thus hincas haccas hurcas "this, that, yonder". haccas had an alternative form haxas.

The relative pronoun originally had initial /j-/, and declined slightly differently:

The directive cases of the abstract forms of most of these pronouns were used used as adverbs of place: lamen "nowhere", quamé "to everywhere". The exceptions were the basic "here, there, yonder", which were respectively formed from the stems hem- hac- hor-: hemen "here", haci "thence", horé "to yonder".

Prepositions

Prepositions which governed the genitive, partitive, and instrumental tended to be grammatical in meaning, for example respectively qui "without, except", cuten "in place of", and ux "with, together with, accompanied by".

Prepositions governing the directive cases more usually had spatial or locational meanings, such as dé "out of" which always took the ablative case. Some of these prepositions could govern more than one case, such as fó and te; these meant "in" and "on" when followed by the locative and "into" and "onto" with the allative.

A few prepositions governed non-obvious cases, such as nez "under" and bex "against, opposed to", both of which required the instrumental.

Verbs

• Person: in addition to inflections for the six combinations of person and number, there was a special inflection for the relative. Note that the inflections indicated the patient of a transitive verb, not the agent; marin was not equivalent to "it gives", but to "it is being given".
• Two aspects: perfective and imperfective. Almost all verbs were paired for these two aspects; the imperfective was the unmarked aspect and thus usually had the simpler stem.
• Four moods: indicative, imperative, subjunctive, and dubitative.
• Two voices. Following the terminology of Lexical Semantics, these are here called inverse (i.e. "inverse relative to standard European usage", although it was the usual one in Mossian) and antipassive.

Note that tense was not a part of the Mossian verbal system; male could mean "I was sleeping", "I am sleeping", or "I will sleep", depending on context. For simplicity, verbs are always glossed here in the present tense.

Mossian verbs had no non-finite forms such as infinitives or participles; other finite verbal forms were used instead (see Syntax).

There were five distinct conjugations, which were identified by the first vowel in the ending of the third person plural in the imperfective indicative:

All of the following verbal forms assume the inverse voice unless otherwise specified.

The structure of a Mossian verb was stem (+ voice) + conjugation marker + mood/aspect + personal ending. The personal endings were the same for all moods and aspects. In general, once the third person indicative of both aspects is known, all other verb forms can be derived.

The imperfective aspect

The perfective aspect

1. The commonest formation was /s/ suffixed directly to the stem, followed by the endings of the third conjugation. This /s/ often combined with the final consonant of the stem: taereane > taerrine, danéne > danzine. In the third conjugation, it was accompanied by a change of the stem vowel; for example marine > merrine, gastine "they are hit, struck" > gessine, naecine "they think, believe" > níxine.
2. /s/ could also be suffixed to the thematic vowel in conjugations 1 2 4 5; the /s/ became /r/ and shortened the vowel, with /ea/ becoming /a/: tagíne > tagirine.
3. /n/ was infixed before the final consonant of the stem. This method of formation was unproductive, and rare if the consonant was anything other than /s/ or a stop. An example is cadóne > candóne, although this verb more usually formed its perfective in the following way.
4. Some fifth conjugation verbs, mostly those indicating a change of state, took the endings of the first; for example daróne "they understand" > daríne.
5. Suppletion, i.e. the use of a different independent stem, was not unknown, especially in the commoner verbs. For example the perfect of castine "they are being risen" was serrine, from an older verb sarine which had the same meaning as castine. Suppletion was usual if the imperfective was formed from an older reduplicating stem, in which case the perfective used the unreduplicated form: lelpine "they are being hidden", perfective lapine.

The perfective subjunctive added the subjunctive endings in /t/ to the perfective stem. This /t/ combined with the perfective /s/ to make the characteristic /-st-/, before which a preceding consonant disappeared, as in mestine < mer-s-tine. The perfective dubitative was formed with the addition of the dubitative endings to the perfective stem.

Many later imperfective forms were created from older perfectives with the suffix -ic and the endings of the fifth conjugation; new perfectives were correspondingly created from these with suffixed /s/ and the endings of the first conjugation. For example, the perfective of an older verb (still found in some dialects) saorin "it leaves, departs" was sórrin, from which the new imperfective sórricun was formed. In its turn, sórrin was later replaced by an analogous perfective sórrixin. Similarly, perfective stems of some verbs (of all conjugations except the second) were formed by adding /ea/, frequently with a change in meaning. For example, rótin "is being drunk" had the derivative rótean, meaning "is soaked up". These verbs had corresponding imperfectives in /-acin-/, thus rótacin "it is being soaked up".

The imperative, the form of the verb used for commands, was used in Mossian in the second person singular and the first and second persons plural only. Both imperfective and perfective aspects had imperative forms, which were transparently related to their indicative counterparts:

The antipassive voice (see below) was inherent in the imperative mood, since it is not practical to issue commands to the patient of the verb. "Drink the water" could be translated as either róti cérua or rúzi cérua; the second was closer in meaning to "drink up the water", with the implication that the speaker requested the action to be carried to completion.

The antipassive voice

The passive voice is also used in English to emphasise the patient, with the agent being demoted to a kind of indirect object preceded by "by". The transformation rule looks like this, where A and P represent "agent" and "patient":

A(nom) verb P(acc) >> P(nom) "to be" verb(past part) by A
"I give it" >> "it is given by me"

Conversely, in Mossian, the antipassive could be used to emphasise the agent of a verb over the patient, which was placed in the allative case:

P(abs) A(erg) verb >> A(abs) P(all) verb-osc
eo eas marin >> ea eoné maroscin
"it by-he is-given" >> "he to-it gives"

It is thus possible to translate English to Mossian by using the antipassive voice where the English has the active, although this would sound unnatural, a bit like rendering every possible verb in an English text into the passive voice.

Reflexive verbs

Negative and interrogative

A sentence could be turned into a question with the interrogative particle gu, which preceded the appropriate word:

gu cérua me rótin "are you drinking the water?"
cérua gu me rótin "are you drinking the water?"
cérua me gu rótin "are you drinking the water?"

Irregular verbs

cu cit cin cés quo had longer alternatives hecu hecit hecin hecés hecó, and initial he- was prepended to the imperfective dubitative in formal language. An alternative perfective indicative stem exu- was found in some dialects.

This verb was never used to express location. Its complement was always in the absolutive case: caedu cin "it is a wolf", xeras monas cin "the boy is quiet".

The forms of the other irregular verbs can all be derived from the first person singulars. A selection of the more common is given below.

Conjunctions

The three main coordinating conjunctions were un "and", min "or", and su "but". un and su had the connotations of "then" or "while", depending on the aspect of the verb which preceded them; compare:

lexe candu un gue davi "I close the door, and then I sit down"
lexe cadu un gue davi "I close the door while I sit down"

Other conjunctions usually required specific combinations of mood and aspect. For example, cami "so, therefore", camae "because", and camé "in order to" were relic case-forms of the Sunovian indefinite pronoun, and required the subjunctive mood:

lexe té candun, camé gue daoti "she closes the door so that I can sit down"
lexe té candun, cami gue daoti "she closes the door, and so I sit down"
gue davi, camae lexe té candútin "I sit down, because she has closed the door"

Similarly, nigue "before", which became nic before a vowel, required the perfective aspect and subjunctive mood of the following verb:

lexe té candu nigue gue daosti "she shuts the door before I sit down"

Many other conjunctions were related to prepositions, such as benc "although, despite" (cf bex "against").

"If" was dan, which required either the subjunctive or dubitative mood in the conditional clause and the subjunctive in the result. The choice of mood in the condition depended on whether the condition was fulfillable or not:

dan lexe té candúti, gue daoti "if she shuts the door, I will sit down" (with subjunctive)
dan lexe té canduo, gue daoti "if she had shut the door, I would have sat down" (with dubitative)

Numbers

fúras "first" was derived from "head", and macas "second" also meant "another, more". gadas singan selan, and all the ordinals, were fully declineable for gender and case.

ringun through séctas were followed by the partitive plural, as were xoras and céctis, both of which were nouns: ringun taecuan "four apples", quores nealérin "eight women", céctis clarin "a hundred sons".

Higher numbers were expressed with a modified form of the ten ending in té (from "on") before the unit: caenté gadas cáran "eleven boys", xorasté gadas nealen "21 women", cecté luncénté zerin taecuan "175 apples" (note the partitive after zerin).

Derivation

Nominal

Tools were formed with several suffixes, the commonest being -tus: muditus "razor" (from maodín "it is scraped), sartus "a ceremonial stick used to lift things" (from sarin). Other, less readily classifiable, suffixes denoting things are visible in anox miquez saecez.

Abstract nouns were usually identical in form to the abstract forms of the related adjectives; thus mondos "silence", dauros "size". Alteratively, /-es/ (alternating with /-ir-/) could be used to derive sixth declension abstract nouns from adjectives: fendes "health" from fendas "healthy", saeres "redness" from saeras "red".

Adjectival

Verbal

Syntax

Word order

As in Rachovian, elements of a clause were emphasised by moving them to the end: lexe cadu nealé and nealé cadu lexe emphasise the woman and the door respectively.

Uses of the cases

The partitive and genitive cases both corresponded to possessive genitives in English, but differed in that the partitive expressed inalienable possession, whereas the genitive was used when possession was alienable. For example, in a phrase like "the woman's hands", because there was no question of the hands ever belonging to someone else, the word for "woman" was in the partitive: paedin nealís. On the other hand, in taecua cárao "the boy's apple", "boy" was naturally in the genitive, where a phrase like paedin nealé would have been exceptional. Unlike in Liotan, it was not possible to use a noun in the partitive case as a verbal subject or object.

The partitive case was required after all quantifiers: xétos cárárin "all of the boys". lane "nothing" plus the partitive was used as the object of a negative verb, thus lane céruás re rótin "I am not drinking water" (not *céruás re rótinule).

The three directional cases, as might be expected, expressed direction and location: zecué "to the house", zecui "from the house", zecun "at the house".

The instrumental case indicated the instrument with which an action was carried out: re cebó quaecin "I break it with a club". The characteristic instrumental singular in -uae of the abstract gender of the adjective was used as an adverb: lexe nealé monduae cadu "the woman closes the door quietly".

Verbs of perception

discean and terean will be referred to here as the internal forms of the verbs, and the other two as the external. The internal form was derived from the external by changing both the stem and the conjugation, typically from the third to the second; further examples are holerin and horrean "to be smelt", and maecin and micean "to be tasted".

The pairing was extended to many intransitive verbs which had little or nothing to do with perception; for example liace and licea both corresponded to English "I slide", but the first - with no explicit agent - implied that it was an accident, whereas the second implied that it was intentional.

Uses of the aspects

Uses of the moods in dependent clauses

The same syntax was used with the equivalents of modal verbs; for example: hote melti "I can sleep", hote malavo "I might not be able to sleep"; taere zecua scurtin "I see the house burning", hote taereati zecua scurtin "I can see the house burning".

A dependent clause followed its head clause by default, although they could be inverted for effect or emphasis.

Relative clauses

S1 O1 V1, S1 O2 V2 >> S1, rel O2 V2, O1 V1-REL
cáro zecui daestin, cáro nealé gessin >> cáro, ea nealé gessés, zecui daestin
"boy house-ABL leaves, boy woman is-hit" >> "boy rel-ABS woman is-hit-REL house-ABL leaves"

i.e. "the boy whom the woman hit leaves the house". "The woman who hit the boy leaves the house" would similarly be nealé, ie cáro gessés, zecui daestin.

Mossian used relative clauses in the equivalents of English phrases participles; for example, the Mossian for "closed door" and "burning house" were in the absolutive respectively lexu ei candós and zecua ei scaren, i.e. "door which has-beeen-closed" and "house which is-burning".

Subject deletion

S1 [O1] V1, S1 [O2] V2 >> S1 [O1] V1, [O2] V2
cáro nealé gessin un cáro zecu daestin >> cáro nealé gessin un zecu daestin
"the woman hits the boy, and the boy leaves the house"

Note how "boy" is the subject of the verb in both clauses; "woman" could not be deleted here, so the equivalent of "the woman hits the boy, and then leaves the house" was cáro nealé gessin un nealé zecu daestin.

Babel text

1. Un gado daogete un hitet soquárin cene.
2. Un raeret quitó hingine, faemi bórin Shimarin tae mízin, un hacen tae sélline zecítine.
3. Un tun mingide sexine, "setóde hampuet, un gina scerrine xétae". Un hampuet cuten sambuás un georu cuten holíceas téno cene.
4. Un sexine, "cadéride mocru un quaetu fórae saelino, un merride giané malle, camé gito tigin nastó faeleruinul".
5. Un God hentearin mocru so quaetu, eovo claret raeron cadés, tas tereatin.
6. Un God sexin, "trede! gadu róba cene, so meluae fúro gado daogete taeno cin, un lamu eamu tae hínin tae battine lequemu cin."
7. "Entide tun daogete spraquútidin, camé hezunol tun mingat darítine."
8. Un tamin tao God tigin nastó faelerin, un mezine quaetu tae cadétin.
9. Un Babel tono malle cin, camae tamin daogete róbao God spranquun, un tamin tao tigin nastó God faelerin.

Since Mossian did not recognise tense, all verbs have been rendered into the present tense.

1. And one(abs) language(abs) and few words(part) is(imperf). As usually with words denoting quantities in Mossian, hites "few" was a noun, not an adjective.
2. And men(abs pl) east(abl) come-them(imperf), plain(abs) land(loc) Shimar(loc) them(erg) find-it(perf), and there start-them(perf) live-them. Two or more nouns in apposition all declined in Mossian. The imperfective of "come" and perfective of "find" implied "they find ... while they come", and similarly with "they start to live".
3. And their others(all) say-them(perf), "make-us(imper) bricks(abs) and we(erg) burn-them(perf) completely". And bricks(abs) instead-of stone(part) and clay(abs) instead-of mortar(part) them(loc) is(imperf). Two Mossian idioms here: "X is ... at Y" for "Y has X", and "their others" for "each other". "Completely" is here translated by the instrumental of xétas "all"; note the use of the perfective aspect.
4. And say-them(perf), "build-us(imper)(perf) city(abs) and tower(abs) head(ins) clouds(loc), and give-us(imper)(perf) us(all) name(abs), so-that on surface(loc) world(gen) scatter-we(perf)(dub)(neg)". cadérre, the perfective of cadéne, is used here since the intention is clearly to carry the building through to completion. "lest" was camé "so that" plus the negative dubitative.
5. And God down go(perf) city(abs) and tower(abs), which(abs) sons(erg) men(gen) build-it(perf), he(erg) see(subj). "go ... + subjunctive", i.e. "go to see". Note the use of tereatin, the internal form of "see".
6. And God(erg) say-him(perf), "see-us(imper)! one(abs) people(abs) are-they, and only one(abs) language(abs) them(loc) is(imperf), and nothing(abs) rel(abs) they(erg) want they(erg) do-it(subj) impossible is. meluae "only" is an adverb cognate with Liotan meal "one".
7. "Go-down-us(imper) their(abs) language(abs) confuse-us-(subj), so-that not be-able-them(dub) their others(abs) understand-them-(subj perf)." daríne, the perfective of darúne, is used here (in subjunctive); the imperfective would imply that some understanding was still possible.
8. And there them(abs) God(erg) surface(loc) earth(gen) scatter-them(perf), and forsook-them(perf) tower(abs) they(erg) build-it(subj)(imperf). Note the aspects of the verbs here, which imply that only the action of building was left uncompleted.
9. And Babel(abs) its name is, because there(loc) language(abs) people(gen) God(erg) confuse-it(perf), and there(loc) them(abs) he(erg) on surface(loc) world(gen) scatter-them(perf). Nothing difficult here, hopefully.

Glossary

badine bazine v3. to do
bex prep. against (+ ins)
bóris nn3. land, region, country
cadéne caderre v4. build, make
cadóne candóne v5. close, shut
cáras nm1. boy
cáres nf2. girl
castis nn3. mountain
cebus nt4. club
cérus nn4. water
clas claru nm6. son
corréne corrine v4. wash
cuten prep. in place of (+ part)
cutes nm2. companion
daengine daerine v3. to leave (compound of hingine)
danéne danzine v4. drive, push
daogez nt6. language
daróne daríne v5. understand
davine daurine v3. sit down (refl)
dé prep. out of (+ abl)
hentean hentearin v2. sink, go down
faeléne falerre v4. scatter, spread.
faemis nn3. plain
fendes fenderu na6. health
fó prep. in (+ loc), into (+ all)
fóras nm1. head
gastine gessine v3. hit, strike
gearos na5. amount, quantity
georus nt4. clay
graz gratu nt6. smoke
hampus nn4. brick
hínine hízine v3. want
hites nm2. few
holícos nt4. mortar
hotine hettine v3. can, be able
lane nn6. nothing
lapine lelpine v3. hide, conceal, cover
lequez lequeta adj. possible
lexus nt4. door
maetine mízine v3. find, reach
malles nf2. name
maline melline v3. sleep
marine merrine v3. give
metóne mezine v5 to leave, forget
mezas na1. increase
mingas nm1. other
miquez miquitu nt6. stick
mocrus nt4. city, town
mondas adj. quiet
naecine níxine v3. think, believe
nastus nt4. land, earth
neales nf2. woman
nez prep. under (+ ins)
paez paedu nt6. hand
quaecíne quacerre v1. break
quaetus nt4. tower
quitos na5. east
raes nm6. person
róbas nm1. people
rótine rúzine v3. drink
saecenz saecinu nt6. leash, lead
saelien nt3. sky (always plural)
saeras adj. red
sambus nt4. stone
saquine sexine v3. say
scarine scerrine v3. burn
setóne sentóne v5. make, create
soquis nn3. word
spraquóne spranquóne v1. confuse
séline sélline v3. start, begin
te prep. on (+ loc), onto (+ all)
tix tigu nt6. surface
taecus nm4. apple
taereane taerrine v2. notice, look at, watch
tagíne tagerre v1. hang
tereane trine v2. see
ux prep. together with (+ ins)
xétas na5. all (+ part)
zecíne zecerre v1. live, dwell
zecus nt4. house